To enter or not to enter: Compliance with COVID-19-related measures in the Spanish bar-hopping culture
Keywords:
COVID-19 , Social Norm Compliance, Conjoint Experiment, Goal Framing TheoryAbstract
This article examines how citizens prioritize different motivations for complying with anti-COVID measures, using Goal-Framing Theory (GFT), which posits a hierarchy of normative, gain, and hedonic goals. Using a conjoint experiment embedded in an online survey of a representative sample of 3,291 Spanish respondents, the study analyzes people's preferences regarding entering a bar. Fieldwork was carried out during the Omicron wave of the virus in February 2022. The results indicate that the likelihood of entering a bar increases when the activity takes place outdoors, patrons wear masks when not consuming alcohol, and most individuals have received a booster dose. Fear of contracting the virus (risk perception) emerges as the main factor influencing the decision to enter a bar.
Downloads
References
Amat, Francesc; Arenas, Andreu; Falcó-Gimeno, Albert y Muñoz, Jordi (2020). Pandemics meet democracy: Experimental evidence from the COVID-19 crisis in Spain. https://doi.org/10.31235/osf.io/dkusw
Bansak, Kirk; Hainmüller, Jens; Hopkins, Daniel J. y Yamamoto, Teppei (2021). Conjoint survey experiments. En: Druckman, James N. y Green, Donald P. (eds.). Advances in experimental political science (vol. 19, pp. 19-41). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Bicchieri, Cristina (2005). The grammar of society: The nature y dynamics of social norms. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Bicchieri, Cristina; Dimant, Eugen; Gachter, Simon y Nosenzo, Daniele (2020). «Observability, Social Proximity and the Erosion of Norm Compliance». SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3576289
Burke, Mary A. y Young, H. Peyton (2011). Social norms. En: Handbook of Social Economics (vol. 1, pp. 311-338). Elsevier.
Burt, Ronald S. (1987). «Social Contagion and Innovation: Cohesion versus Structural Equivalence». American Journal of Sociology, 92(6): 1287-1335. https://doi.org/10.1086/228667
Chong, Yuen Y.; Chien, Wai T.; Cheng, Ho Y.; Chow, Ka; Kassianos, Angelo P.; Karekla, Maria y Gloster, Andrew (2020). «The Role of Illness Perceptions, Coping, and Self-Efficacy on Adherence to Precautionary Measures for COVID-19». International Journal of Environmental Research y Public Health, 17(18): 6540. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17186540
Clark, Cory; Davila, Andrés; Regis, Maxime y Kraus, Sascha (2020). «Predictors of COVID-19 voluntary compliance behaviors: An international investigation». Global Transitions, 2: 76-82.
Closa, Carlos; Fraile, Marta; Parrado, Salvador y Pereira-Puga, Manuel (2022). «Los españoles ante las medidas y recomendaciones contra la COVID». DIGITAL CSIC. Disponible en: https://digital.csic.es/handle/10261/275830, acceso 26 de enero 2026.
Closa, Carlos; Fraile, Marta; Parrado, Salvador y Pereira-Puga, Manuel (2025). «Designing compliance for COVID-19 public policies [DATASET] [Data set]». DIGITAL.CSIC. http://doi.org/10.20350/DIGITALCSIC/17767
Coleman, James S. (1994). Foundations of social theory. Harvard University Press.
Daoust, Jean-François; Nadeau, Richard; Dassonneville, Ruth; Lachapelle, Erick; Bélanger, Éric; Savoie, Justin y Linden, Clifton van der (2021). «How to Survey Citizens' Compliance with COVID-19 Public Health Measures: Evidence from Three Survey Experiments». Journal of Experimental Political Science, 8(3): 310-317. https://doi.org/10.1017/XPS.2020.25
Dryhurst, Sarah; Schneider, Claudia R.; Kerr, John; Freeman, Alexandra L. J.; Recchia, Gabriel; Bles, Anne M. van der; Spiegelhalter, David y Linden, Sander van der (2020). «Risk perceptions of COVID-19 around the world». Journal of Risk Research, 23(7-8): 994-1006. https://doi.org/10.1080/13669877.2020.1758193
Floyd, Donna L.; Prentice-Dunn, Steven y Rogers, Ronald W. (2000). «A Meta-Analysis of Research on Protection Motivation Theory». Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 30(2): 407-429. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2000.tb02323.x
Fraile, Marta y Méndez, Mónica (2021). «La opinión Pública Durante la Pandemia: ¿Más de lo Mismo?» Panorama Social, 33: 177-192.
Galasso, Vincenzo; Pons, Vincent; Profeta, Paola; Becher, Michael; Brouard, Sylvain y Foucault, Martial (2020). «Gender Differences in COVID-19 Related Attitudes y Behavior: Evidence from a Panel Survey in Eight OECD Countries». National Bureau of Economic Research, 27359: w27359. https://doi.org/10.3386/w27359
Ganter, Flavien (2023). «Identification of Preferences in Forced-Choice Conjoint Experiments: Reassessing the Quantity of Interest». Political Analysis, 31(1): 98-112.
Goldstein, Daniel A. N. y Wiedemann, Johannes (2021). Trust Me, Mask Up: Experimental Evidence on Social Trust and Responsiveness to COVID-19 Mitigation Policies. Disponible en: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3835934 o http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3835934, , acceso 26 de enero 2026.
Hainmüller, Jens; Hopkins, Daniel J. y Yamamoto, Teppei (2014). «Causal Inference in Conjoint Analysis: Understanding Multidimensional Choices via Stated Preference Experiments». Political Analysis, 22(1): 1-30. https://doi.org/10.1093/pan/mpt024
Hamidi, Shima y Zandiatashbar, Ahoura (2021). «Compact development y adherence to stay-at-home order during the COVID-19 pandemic: A longitudinal investigation in the United States». Landscape y Urban Planning, 205: 103952. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2020.103952
Hansen, Pelle G.; Larsen, Erik G. y Gundersen, C. D. (2022). «Reporting on one's behavior: A survey experiment on the nonvalidity of self-reported COVID-19 hygiene-relevant routine behaviors». Behavioural Public Policy, 6(1): 34-51. https://doi.org/10.1017/bpp.2021.13
Harper, Craig A.; Satchell, Liam P.; Fido, Dean y Latzman, Robert D. (2021). «Functional Fear Predicts Public Health Compliance in the COVID-19 Pandemic». International Journal of Mental Health y Addiction, 19(5): 1875-1888. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-020-00281-5
Kahneman, Daniel y Tversky, Amos (1982). «The psychology of preferences». Scientific American, 246(1): 160-173.
Kooistra, Emmeke B.; Reinders, Chris; Kuiper, Malouke E.; Olthuis, Elke; Brownlee, Megan; Fine, Adam y Rooij, Benjamin van (2020). «Mitigating COVID-19 in a Nationally Representative UK Sample: Personal Abilities and Obligation to Obey the Law Shape Compliance with Mitigation Measures». SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3598221
Lieberoth, Andreas; Lin, Shiang-Yi; Stöckli, Sabrina; Han, Hyemin; Kowal, Marta; Gelpi, Rebekah; Chrona, Stavroula; Tran, Thao P.; Jeftić, Alma; Rasmussen, Jasper; Cakal, Huseyin; Milfont, Taciano L.; Yamada, Yuki; Debove, Stephane; Gelpí, Rebekah; Flis, Ivan; Turc, Fidan; Sikka, Pilleriin; Mamede, Salomé; Tuominen, Jarno… (2021). «Stress and worry in the 2020 coronavirus pandemic: Relationships to trust and compliance with preventive measures across 48 countries in the COVIDiSTRESS global survey». Royal Society Open Science, 8(2): 200589. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.200589
Lindenberg, Siegwart (2017). The Dependence of Human Cognitive and Motivational Processes on Institutional Systems. En: Jann, Ben y Przepiorka, Wojtek (eds.). Social dilemmas, enninstitutions and the evolution of cooperation (pp. 85-106). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110472974-005
Lindenberg, Siegwart y Steg, Linda (2007). «Normative, Gain and Hedonic Goal Frames Guiding Environmental Behavior». Journal of Social Issues, 63(1): 117-137. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.2007.00499.x
Lindenberg, Siegwart y Steg, Linda (2013). Goal-framing theory and norm-guided environmental behavior. En: Trijp, Hans C. M. van (ed.). Encouraging sustainable behavior (pp. 37–54). New York: Psychology Press.
Lindenberg, Siegwart; Six, Frederique y Keizer, Kees (2021). Social contagion and goal framing: The sustainability of rule compliance. En: Sokol, Daniel D. y Rooij, Benjamin van (eds.). Cambridge Handbook of Compliance (pp. 422-437). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Mazza, Jacopo y Scipioni, Marco (2022). «The gender gap in support for governments during the COVID crisis». Journal of European Public Policy: 1-17. https://doi.org/10.1080/13501763.2022.2027503
Mettler, Suzanne (2019). «Making What Government Does Apparent to Citizens: Policy Feedback Effects, Their Limitations, and How They Might Be Facilitated». The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political y Social Science, 685(1): 30-46. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716219860108
Mettler, Suzanne y Soss, Joe (2004). «The consequences of public policy for democratic citizenship: Bridging policy studies and mass politics». Perspectives on Politics, 2(1): 55-73. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1537592704000623
Moynihan, Donald P. y Soss, Joe (2014). «Policy Feedback and the Politics of Administration». Public Administration Review, 74(3): 320-332.
Neuburger, Larissa y Egger, Roman (2021). «Travel risk perception and travel behaviour during the COVID-19 pandemic 2020: A case study of the DACH region». Current Issues in Tourism, 24(7): 1003-1016.
Nivette, Amy; Ribeaud, Denis; Murray, Aja; Steinhoff, Annekatrin; Bechtiger, Laura; Hepp, Urs; Shanahan, Lilly y Eisner, Manuel (2021). «Non-compliance with COVID-19-related public health measures among young adults in Switzerland: Insights from a longitudinal cohort study». Social Science y Medicine, 268: 113370.
Noone, Chris; Warner, Nikolett Z.; Byrne, Molly; Durand, Hannah; Lavoie, Kim L.; McGuire, Brian E.; McSharry, Jenny; Meade, Oonagh.; Morrissey, Eimear y Molloy, Gerard J. (2021). «A scoping review of research on the determinants of adherence to social distancing measures during the COVID-19 pandemic». Health Psychology Review, 15(3): 350-370.
Oosterhoff, Benjamin y Palmer, Cara A. (2020). Psychological Correlates of News Monitoring, Social Distancing, Disinfecting, y Hoarding Behaviors among US Adolescents during the COVID-19 Pandemic [Preprint]. PsyArXiv.
Oude Groeniger, J.; Noordzij, Kjell; Waal, Jeroen van der y de Koster, Willem (2021). «Dutch COVID-19 lockdown measures increased trust in government and trust in science: A difference-in-differences analysis». Social Science y Medicine, 275: 113819.
Parrado, Salvador; Perna, Roberta; Closa, Carlos y Pereira Puga, Manuel (2025). «Regulatory Approaches in the Face of a Pandemic: Assessing the Role of Ideology, Context, and Rule Design in Four Spanish Regions». Public Administration. https://doi.org/10.1111/padm.70010
Pierson, Paul (1993). «When Effect Becomes Cause: Policy Feedback and Political Change». World Politics, 45(4): 595-628.
Pierson, Paul (2000). «Increasing returns, path dependence, and the study of politics». American Political Science Review, 94(2): 251-267.
Real Decreto 463/2020, de 14 de marzo, por el que se declara el estado de alarma para la gestión de la situación de crisis sanitaria ocasionada por el COVID-19 (BOE-A-2020-3692). Boletín Oficial del Estado, núm. 67.
Reinders, Chris; Kuiper, Malouke E.; Olthuis, Elke; Kooistra, Emmeke B.; Bruijn, Anne L. de; Brownlee, Megan; Fine, Adam y Rooij, Benjamin van (2020). «Compliance in the 1.5 meter society: Longitudinal analysis of citizens' adherence to COVID-19 mitigation measures in a representative sample in the Netherlands». Amsterdam Law School Research Paper, 2020–33.
Scherer, Clifford W. y Cho, Hichang (2003). «A Social Network Contagion Theory of Risk Perception». Risk Analysis, 23(2): 261-267. https://doi.org/10.1111/1539-6924.00306
Six, Frederique; Vadder, Steven; Glavina, Monika; Verhoest, Koen y Pepermans, Koen (2021). «What drives compliance with COVID‐19 measures over time? Explaining changing impacts with Goal Framing Theory». Regulation y Governance, 17(1). https://doi.org/10.1111/rego.12440
Slovic, Paul (1992). Perception of risk: Reflections on the psychometric paradigm. En: Golding, Dominic y Krimsky, Sheldon (eds.). Theories of Risk. New York: Praeger.
Soss, Joe y Schram, Sanford F. (2007). «A public transformed? Welfare reform as policy feedback». American Political Science Review, 101(1): 111-127. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055407070049
Tversky, Amos y Kahneman, Daniel (1992). «Advances in prospect theory: Cumulative representation of uncertainty». Journal of Risk y Uncertainty, 5: 297-323. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00122574
Wang, Donna; Marmo-Roman, Suzanne; Krase, Kathryn y Phanord, Lusta (2021). «Compliance with preventative measures during the COVID-19 pandemic in the USA and Canada: Results from an online survey». Social Work in Health Care, 60(3): 240-255. https://doi.org/10.1080/00981389.2020.1871157
Webster, Rebecca K.; Brooks, Samantha K.; Smith, Louise E.; Woodland, Lisa; Wessely, Simon y Rubin, G. James (2020). «How to improve adherence with quarantine: Rapid review of the evidence». Public Health, 182: 163-169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.puhe.2020.03.007
Wlezien, Christopher (1995). «The public as thermostat: Dynamics of preferences for spending». American Journal of Political Science: 981-1000. https://doi.org/10.2307/2111666
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2024 Revista Española de Investigaciones Sociológicas
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
Permite Compartir — copiar y redistribuir el material en cualquier medio o formato, Adaptar — remezclar, transformar y construir a partir del material para cualquier propósito, incluso comercialmente.
